Festivals have been one means of positioning places in national media landscapes, not only attracting tourists, but also changing the identity of places in ways that counter representations of rural decline and create a sense of community (Duffy, 2000). compared to a city where John Denver, for example, considered only "money-hungry fools" and "black limousines" and where others found poverty, violence and unfulfilled dreams. This music could be more accurately described as folk music, as it was originally a series of non-commercial styles spread among white farmers by word of mouth, but as "folk music" became normalized, the term "folk music" was "discarded". Country music, you name it. 167). Almost by definition it represented rural life, although not without doubts and insecurities or an inability to admit that the land was blameless. . gramophone records. Such estimates of music venues reflect, to some extent, the accumulation of production infrastructures, the raw number of active musicians, and the continuous recording of a relatively dense cast; in other cases, such associations are created as part of media campaigns and local marketing strategies, "invented traditions" (Hobsbawm, 1983) that have become central to the tourism industry and the music economy (Atkinson, 1997; Cohen, 1997; Gibson and Connell 200
) . Alternatively, places and their meanings are contested in and through music, whether it is the multiple and contradictory representation of Los Angeles and New York in rap music, or the celebration or exoticization of ethnicity in "world music.
